Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context презентация

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Discussion Question Do you consider yourself to be an above-average driver?

Слайд 1Chapter 5
The Self:
Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context

Слайд 2Discussion Question
Do you consider yourself to be an above-average driver?

Слайд 3Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
5.1 What is the self-concept, and how does

it develop?
5.2 To what extent do people know themselves through introspection, and what are the consequences of introspection?
5.3 In what ways do people come to know themselves by observing their behavior?

Слайд 4Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
5.4 In what ways do people use others

to know themselves?
5.5 When are people likely to succeed at self-control, and when are they likely to fail?
5.6 How do people portray themselves so that others will see them as they want to be seen?
5.7 What are the pros and cons of having high self- esteem?

Слайд 5The Origins and Nature of the Self-Concept
5.1 What is the self-concept,

and how does it develop?

Слайд 6Self-Concept
The overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal

attributes

Слайд 7Origins of the Self (1 of 2)
Rudimentary Self-Concept
Some primates
Humans at 18

to 24 months

Слайд 8Origins of the Self (2 of 2)
Child’s self-concept
Concrete
References to characteristics like

age, sex, neighborhood, and hobbies
Maturing self-concept
Less emphasis on physical characteristics
More emphasis on psychological states and how other people judge us

Слайд 9Figure 5.1 What Do We See as Key Attributes of Other

People’s Selves? Participants were asked to imagine that they saw an old friend that they knew when they were 25 years old but had not seen in 40 years. They were given a list of ways in which their friend had changed and rated each one according to how much it would alter their view of their friend’s true self, on a scale that went from 0% (“this change has no impact on his/her true self”) to 100% (“this change completely alters his/her true self”). People thought that changes in their friend’s morality (e.g., how cruel he/she was) would alter his/her true self more than other changes. People thought that changes in perceptual abilities (e.g., changes in vision) would have the smallest impact on their friend’s true self.

(Data from Strohminger & Nichols, 2014)

Слайд 10Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept (1 of 3)
The squeaky wheel gets the

grease.
American proverb
The nail that stands out gets pounded down.
Japanese proverb

Слайд 11Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept (2 of 3)
Independent View of the Self
Defines

self through own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not other people’s


Interdependent View of the Self

Defines self through relationships to other people
Recognizes that others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions affect one’s behavior
Connectedness and interdependence valued

Слайд 12Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept (3 of 3)
Independent View of the

Self

Independence and uniqueness valued
Held in many Western cultures

Interdependent View of the Self

Uniqueness frowned on
Held in many Asian and non-Western cultures

But there are also differences within cultures! Not all Westerners are independent and not all Easterners are interdependent.

Слайд 13Choosing a Traditional Role over Career When Harvard-educated Masako Owada abandoned her

promising career to marry Crown Prince Naruhito of Japan and assumed the traditional roles required of her, many Western women questioned her decision. At issue for many was cultural interdependence versus independence of the self.

Source: Tsugufumi Matsumoto/Pool/AP Images

Слайд 14Figure 5.2 Date of Statehood and Frequency of Popular Baby Names This

graph shows selected U.S. states and the year they attained statehood. It can be seen that the more recently a state became part of the union, the less likely parents were to give their children popular names. Researchers view this as evidence that residents of these states have a more independent self-view.

(Based on Varnum & Kitayama, 2011)

Слайд 15Functions of the Self
Four main functions:
Self-knowledge
The way we understand who we

are and organize this information
Self Control
The way we make plans and execute decisions
Impression management
The way we present ourselves to others and get them to see us as we want to be seen
Self-esteem
The way we maintain positive views of ourselves

Слайд 16Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection
5.2 To what extent do people know themselves

through introspection, and what are the consequences of introspection?

Слайд 17The Way of Introspection (1 of 2)
Introspection
The process whereby people look

inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives

Слайд 18The Way of Introspection (2 of 2)
People do not rely on

introspection very often.
Why not?
Not always pleasant to think about ourselves
Reasons for our feelings and behavior can be outside conscious awareness

Слайд 19Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory (1 of 4)
The idea that

when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values

Слайд 20Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory (2 of 4)
Sometimes people go far

in their attempt to escape the self.
Focusing on the self can be very aversive.
Ways to turn off “internal spotlight” on oneself:
Alcohol abuse
Binge eating
Sexual masochism

Слайд 21Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory (3 of 4)
Not all means of

escaping the self are damaging.
Religious expression
Spirituality

Слайд 22Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory (4 of 4)
Self-focus is not always

damaging or aversive.
Example: if you have experienced a major success
Can also remind you of your sense of right and wrong

Слайд 23Figure 5.3 Self-Awareness Theory: The Consequences of Self-Focused Attention When people focus on

themselves, they compare their behavior to their internal standards.

(Adapted from Carver & Scheier, 1981)

Слайд 24Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than

We Can Know (1 of 3)

It can be difficult to know why we feel the way we do.
What is it about your sweetheart that made you fall in love?
How much does sleep affect your state of mind?
What really determines what mood you’re in?

Слайд 25Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than

We Can Know (2 of 3)

College students recorded daily moods every day for 5 weeks (Wilson, Laser, & Stone, 1982)
Kept track of things that might predict their moods
Weather, workload, sleep
Students estimated how their mood was affected by these variables
Overall, inaccurate with what predicted their mood

Слайд 26Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than

We Can Know (3 of 3)

Causal Theories
Theories about the causes of one’s own feelings and behaviors; often we learn such theories from our culture.
Problem
Schemas and theories are not always correct. Can lead to incorrect judgments about the causes of our actions.

Слайд 27The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons (1 of 2)
Reasons-Generated Attitude Change
Attitude

change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one’s attitudes; people assume their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalize

Слайд 28The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons (2 of 2)
Problem
Focus on things

that are easy to put into words
Ignore feelings harder to explain
Hard-to-explain feelings are the ones that often matter in the long run

Слайд 29Liz Lemon Makes a List In an episode of the TV program

30 Rock, Liz Lemon (played by Tina Fey) made a list of the reasons why she liked and disliked her boyfriend Dennis (played by Dean Winters). According to research on self-generated attitude change, the act of making this list might have changed her mind about how she felt, at least temporarily.

Source: Patricia Schlein/PS3 WENN Photos/Newscom

Слайд 30Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our Own Behavior
5.3 In what ways do

people come to know themselves by observing their behavior?

Слайд 31Self-Perception Theory (1 of 2)
Self-Perception Theory
The theory that when our attitudes

and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs

Слайд 32Self-Perception Theory (2 of 2)
Infer inner feelings from behavior
Only when not

sure how we feel
People judge whether their behavior
Really reflects how we feel
Or the situation that made us act that way

Слайд 33Peanuts Cartoon

Слайд 34Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation (1 of 4)
Intrinsic Motivation
Engage in an activity

because of enjoyment and interest, not external rewards or pressures
Extrinsic Motivation
Engage in an activity because of external reasons, not because of enjoyment and interest

Слайд 35Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation (2 of 4)
Many teachers or parents reward

kids for good grades with compliments, candy, gold stars, or toys.
Other programs reward kids for reading books.
But do these programs increase or decrease a child’s love of reading?

Слайд 36Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation (3 of 4)
We have to consider the

effects of rewards on people’s thoughts about:
Themselves
Their self-concept
Their motivation to read in the future
Danger of reward programs
Reading for rewards, not because it’s actually enjoyable

Слайд 37Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation (4 of 4)
Overjustification Effect
The tendency of people

to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons

Слайд 38Figure 5.4 The Over justification Effect During the initial baseline phase, researchers measured

how much time elementary school students played math games. During the reward program, they rewarded the children with prizes for playing with the games. When the rewards were no longer offered (during the follow-up phase), the children played with the games even less than they had during the baseline phase, indicating that the rewards had lowered their intrinsic interest in the games.

(Adapted from Greene, Sternberg, & Lepper, 1976)

Слайд 39Preserving Intrinsic Interest (1 of 2)
Task-contingent rewards
Rewards that are given for

performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done
Performance-contingent rewards
Rewards that are based on how well we perform a task

Слайд 40Preserving Intrinsic Interest (2 of 2)
Avoiding over-justification when using rewards
Rewards will

undermine interest only if interest was initially high.
The type of reward makes a difference.
Performance-contingent rewards are less damaging to intrinsic interest

Слайд 41Mindsets and Motivation
Fixed mindset
The idea that we have a set amount

of an ability that cannot change
Growth mindset
The idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow
Mindset affects motivation
Fixed mindset more likely to give up and do poorly on subsequent tasks after failure

Слайд 42Sally Forth Cartoon

Слайд 43Understanding Our Emotions: The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion (1 of 3)
Example


Consider how happy, angry, or afraid you feel at any given time.
How do you know which emotion you are experiencing?
Don’t we know how we feel without having to think about it?

Слайд 44Understanding Our Emotions: The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion (2 of 3)
Stanley

Schachter (1964)
Experience of emotion is similar to other types of self-perception
Infer our emotions by observing our behavior

Слайд 45Understanding Our Emotions: The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion (3 of 3)
Schachter’s

theory
We experience emotions in a two-step self-perception process:
Experience physiological arousal.
Seek an appropriate explanation for it.

Слайд 46Figure 5.5 The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion People first experience physiological arousal and

then attach an explanation to it.

Слайд 47Schachter and Singer, 1962 (1 of 4)
Research Question
Given the same degree

of physiological arousal, will people “feel” different emotions depending on their environment?

Слайд 48Schachter and Singer, 1962 (2 of 4)
Cover Story: Injection of “Suproxin”

test of vision
IV 1: Physiological Arousal
epinephrine informed
(shake, heart pound, face flush)
epinephrine ignorant
(mild, harmless, no side effects)
Placebo
(saline, mild, harmless, no side effects)

Слайд 49Schachter and Singer, 1962 (3 of 4)
Cover Story: Injection of “Suproxin”

test of vision
IV 2: Environmental Cues (Mood of “Stooge”)
Euphoric/happy (playing games)
Angry (insulting questionnaire)
DV = Participant’s mood

Слайд 50Schachter and Singer, 1962 (4 of 4)
Results
Epinephrine-informed group
Did not become angry

when exposed to angry stooge
Had alternate explanation for their arousal (the drug)
Epinephrine-ignorant group
Became euphoric
Joined stooge in playing games

Слайд 51Implications of the Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
Implications
Emotions are somewhat arbitrary.
Emotions

depend on our explanations for arousal.

Слайд 52Finding the Wrong Cause: Misattribution of Arousal (1 of 2)
To what

extent do the results found by Schachter and Singer (1962) generalize to everyday life?
Do people form mistaken emotions in the same way as participants in that study did?
In everyday life, one might argue, people usually know why they are aroused.

Слайд 53Finding the Wrong Cause: Misattribution of Arousal (2 of 2)
Misattribution of Arousal
Making

mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do
Arousal from one source (e.g., caffeine, exercise, a fright) can enhance the intensity of how the person interprets other feelings (e.g., attraction to someone).

Слайд 54Is It the Bridge, or Are You in Love? When people are

aroused for one reason, such as occurs when they cross a scary bridge, they often attribute this arousal to the wrong source—such as attraction to the person they are with.

Source: Omika/Fotolia

Слайд 55Figure 5.6 Misattribution of Arousal When a woman approached men on a scary

bridge and asked them to fill out a questionnaire, a high percentage of them were attracted to her and called her for a date. When the same woman approached men after they had crossed the bridge and had rested, relatively few called her for a date.

(Adapted from Dutton & Aron, 1974)

Слайд 56Using Other People to Know Ourselves
5.4 In what ways do

people use others to know themselves?

Слайд 57Self-Concept Does Not Develop in a Solitary Context
Self-concept shaped by people

around us

Слайд 58Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others (1 of 5)
How do

we use others to define ourselves?
Measure our own abilities and attitudes by comparing to other people.
If you donate $50 to charity and find out your friend donates $10, you can feel generous.
If you find out your friend donated $100, you might not feel as generous!

Слайд 59Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others (2 of 5)
Social Comparison

Theory
The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people
The theory revolves around two important questions:
When do you engage in social comparison?
With whom do you choose to compare yourself?

Слайд 60Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others (3 of 5)
When do

you engage in social comparison?
No objective standard exists to measure against
When we experience uncertainty
Example: New office donation program, not sure what amount would be generous, you are especially likely to compare yourself to others.

Слайд 61Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others (4 of 5)
With whom

do you choose to compare yourself?
Initial impulse: anyone who is around
Occurs quickly and automatically

Слайд 62Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others (5 of 5)
Goal: know

the furthest level to which we can aspire
Upward social comparison:
Comparing to people who are better on a particular ability
Goal: feel better about yourself
Downward social comparison:
Comparing to people who are worse on a particular trait or ability

Слайд 63Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People’s Views (1 of 2)
We adopt

other people’s views in some circumstances
“Looking glass self” (Cooley, 1902)
We see ourselves and the social world through the eyes of other people
Adopt other’s views when we want to get along with them

Слайд 64Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People’s Views (2 of 2)
Social Tuning
The

process whereby people adopt another person’s attitudes

Слайд 65Figure 5.7 Social Tuning to a Likable Experimenter Participants took a test of

automatic prejudice toward black people, after interacting with an experimenter who was likable or unlikable and wore an antiracism T-shirt or a blank T-shirt. When the experimenter was likable, participants showed less automatic prejudice when she was wearing the antiracism T-shirt than when she was not (the higher the number on the scale, the more the anti-black prejudice). When the experimenter was unlikable, participants reacted against her views: They showed more automatic prejudice when she was wearing the antiracist T-shirt than when she was not. These results show that people tend to automatically adopt the views of people they like, but automatically reject the views of people they do not.

(Adapted from Sinclair, Lowery, Hardin, & Colangelo, 2005)

Слайд 66Knowing Our Future Feelings by Consulting Other People
Affective Forecasts
People’s predictions about

how they will feel in response to a future emotional event
Example: Predicted first date compatibility based on either:
Reading profile of date
Reading about how much another person enjoyed the speed date
Results:
Affective forecasts better when based on other person’s evaluation rather than reading profile

Слайд 67Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self
5.5 When are people

likely to succeed at self-control, and when are they likely to fail?

Слайд 68Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self (1 of 3)
Self-Control
Making choices

about present and plans for the future

Слайд 69Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self (2 of 3)
Thought suppression
Attempt

to avoid thinking about something we would prefer to forget
Not that efficient!

Слайд 70Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self (3 of 3)
Exerting effort on

one task limits ability to exert self-control on another task
How can self-control be improved?
Believing willpower is an unlimited resource
Prayer

Слайд 71Impression Management: All the World’s a Stage
5.6 How do people

portray themselves so that others will see them as they want to be seen?

Слайд 72Actors Engaged in Impression Management
Impression Management
The attempt by people to get

others to see them as they want to be seen

Слайд 73David Duke: From Klansman to Politician Impression management in action: In the

1970s, David Duke was a leader in the Ku Klux Klan; in 1991, he ran for governor of Louisiana as a mainstream conservative Republican. A remarkable change occurred in Duke’s presentation of self during this time.

Source: (left) Lee Corkran/Sygma/Corbis; (right) Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division

Слайд 74Ingratiation and Self-Handicapping (1 of 2)
Ingratiation
Flattering, praising, and generally trying to

make ourselves likable to another person, often of higher status
Self-handicapping
Creating obstacles and excuses for ourselves
If we do poorly on a task, we can avoid blaming ourselves

Слайд 75Ingratiation and Self-Handicapping (2 of 2)
Self-handicapping
Behavioral self-handicapping
People act in ways that

reduce the likelihood of success so that if they fail, they can blame it on obstacles rather than ability
Example: pulling an all-nighter before a test
Reported self-handicapping
Rather than creating obstacles to success, people devise ready-made excuses in case they fail
Example: complaining about not feeling well when you take a test

Слайд 76Culture, Impression Management, and Self-Enhancement
Culturally universal
Desire to manage image we present
Cultural

differences
Kinds of images we want to present
E.g., “Saving face” is important in Asian cultures

Слайд 77Self-Esteem: How We Feel About Ourselves
5.7 What are the pros

and cons of having high self-esteem?

Слайд 78Self-Esteem: How We Feel About Ourselves (1 of 3)
Self-Esteem
Overall evaluation (positive

or negative) that people have of themselves

Слайд 79Self-Esteem: How We Feel About Ourselves (2 of 3)
Benefits of high

self-esteem:
Buffers against thoughts of own mortality
Terror management theory
Motivates us to persevere when going gets rough

Слайд 80Self-Esteem: How We Feel About Ourselves (3 of 3)
Narcissism
Combination of excessive

self-love and a lack of empathy toward others
Has increased in college students since the 1980s

Слайд 81Narcissus at the Pool In Greek mythology, Narcissus fell in love with

his own reflection in a pool of water and was so fond of his own image that he couldn’t leave and eventually died. Today, narcissism refers to the combination of excessive self-love and a lack of empathy toward others.

Source: SuperStock/Alamy

Слайд 82Figure 5.8 Are People Becoming More Narcissistic? The top (red) line

shows average scores for college students on the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), a common measure of narcissism, from the years 1980 to 2008. The bottom (blue) line shows the percentage of first-person pronouns (e.g., I, me, mine) in the lyrics of the 10 most popular songs of the year from 1980 to 2007. As you can see there has been a steady increase on both measures over time, suggesting that narcissism may be increasing.

(Based on Twenge & Foster, 2010)

Слайд 83Discussion Question Follow-up
Based on the research you read in this chapter,

why do you think most people consider themselves to be above-average drivers?

Слайд 84Summary and Review
The Self
Functions and Definitions
Sources of Self-Knowledge
Introspection
Self-Perception
Social Interaction
Self-Presentation
Self-Esteem

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